LECTURE NOTES
Political Science 1014 -- Fall Semester, 2008
Prof. Charles Walcott
August 25
I. Introduction to course mechanics
A. Syllabus -- long version on Web, can be reached
via Blackboard
B. Grades will be posted on Blackboard
C. Exams are multiple-choice, from both books and
lectures
1. Questions will target important
things --not trivia, statistics, etc.
2. Use Key Terms and other study aids
in back of textbook chapters
3. Reader is on-line -- codes come with
new copies of the text
D. All make-up exams will be short-answer, not multiple-choice
E. Analytical essays will focus on topics involving
the Volgy book
F. Teaching Assistants will grade essays, extra
credits, provide help in preparing for exams, etc.
1. TAs and instructor will keep regular
office hours -- feel free to come in or e-mail
II. Logic of the course
A. For many, a review -- but having taken it before
isn't the same as knowing or understanding
B. Four distinct sections
1. Constitutional principles - "rules
of the game"
2. Citizen participation, individual
and organized - "democracy"
3. The institutions of the federal
government - "representation"
4. Public policy - "outcomes"
August 27
I. Some
key political concepts
A. Political culture
1. "culture" -- distinctive aspects
of society passed down through generations
2. pol. culture is the aspect of
culture that
provides values and understandings of politics
3. Core values: liberty,
equality,
self-government
a. not always clear or
compatible
-- need interpretation, balancing
b. legitimacy of
government flows
from its association with core values
B. Politics -- many colloquial meanings, but
we can
focus on core meanings shared in all usages
1. Can be defined as non-violent
resolution of conflict or potential conflict
2. An inherent part of human life
-- as
such not "good" or "bad"
3. Aristotle -- the "master"
science because unless politics works, the other benefits of
civilization will
not be possible
C. Collective action
1. In governments where citizens
participate, people need to find ways to coordinate, to resolve
conflicts, and
to encourage participation
2. Through collective action
we are
able to produce collective "goods" -- benefits that all can enjoy
(e.g., national security, pollution control)
a. requires imposition of
collective costs -- taxes, sacrifices
3. The problem of participation
focuses
on "free riders," who choose to enjoy benefits without accepting
costs
D. Institutions
1. We facilitate collective
action by
creating institutions through which we or our representatives act
2. Institutions basically consist
of
purposes and procedures -- they outlast any particular set of members
3. Provide arenas for politics as
well as
means for implementing (controlling) policy
E. Democracy & constitutionalism
1. Direct democracy may be ideal,
but not
practical on a large scale
2. In large polities, we settle
for
representative democracy
a. can be slippage
between
what people want and what representatives actually do -- leading to
disillusionment with institutions
b. legitimacy can be
a
problem when institutions are far away, not directly experienced
3. Similarly, capitalism
legitimizes
dist. of wealth -- but "big business" is seldom widely popular
F. Power -- the ability to get people to act
the way
you want them to -- the key to all political action --
a. alternative ideas about power in
society:
1. majoritarianism
2. pluralism
3. elitism
4. bureaucratic rule
G. Authority -- the right (conferred by law,
constitution,
tradition or otherwise) to use power
September 1
BACKGROUND
TO THE CONSTITUTION
1. The colonial experience helps us to understand where the
Constitution
came from, and why.
a. Suspicion of strong central governmental
authority came
along with the early settlers.
1. Groups like the
Pilgrims,
fleeing religious oppression.
2. Traders and
adventurers,
seeking the freedom of the frontier, profit from trade.
b. Democratic traditions grew up in the colonies, in
the
absence of a strong British presence.
1. Citizens came to
feel
representative govt. was necessary for legitimacy of laws.
2. The Declaration of Independence expressed an enduring
democratic
faith.
a. Radically democratic.
b. Grounded in natural law argument ("self-evident
truth," "our Creator")
c. Not a governing document -- a call to
rebellion,
and an explanation.
d. Represented a middle-class revolution, not an
uprising of
the lower classes.
3. Articles of Confederation -- overdoing limited government
a. Central govt. deliberately weak --
preference for
powerful states.
b. No power of taxation, thus couldn't even provide
fully
for defense.
c. No power to regulate interstate commerce --
led to
failing economy, possible rebellion.
4. The Constitutional Convention was called to revise the
Articles, but
began by rejecting them entirely.
a. The convention illustrates the
power of
ideas
(democracy, republican govt.), recent experience (the revolution, the
Articles)
and circumstance (economic crisis) --
how they combine
to
produce political action.
September 3
A.. Constitutionalism -- the basic idea is to limit the power of
government.
a. You can think of the framers as "political
engineers," providing a blueprint for governance.
b. At the same time, the framers were
politicians in
both important senses of the word: compromise and creativity.
B.
Content of the Constitution
1. Organization of the document.
a. Articles 1-3 describe the structure and
powers of
the executive, legislative, and judical branches.
b. Article 4 describes the relationship
between state
& federal govts. (federalism).
c. Article 5 describes the process of amending
the
Constitution.
d. Article 6 asserts, among other things, the
supremacy of federal law.
e. Article 7 sets the conditions for
ratification.
2. One way to look at the Constitution is its answers to two
"big" philosophical questions:
a. How powerful will the (federal) government
be?
b. Who will hold power within it (i.e., who
governs)?
3. Power of the government.
a. Strengthened, compared to Articles of
Confederation
1. Single executive.
2. Power to tax,
regulate
commerce.
3. Ultimate national
(not
state) supremacy.
b. But also sought to constrain the
government.
1. Separation of
powers (three
branches) & checks and balances - the "Madisonian model."
2. The system of
federalism
(strong states were already in place, only needed to be acknowledged)
3. The complexity of
the
system deliberately creates inefficiency, a preference for errors of
omission.
4. Who governs?
a. Framers were mostly not "pure" democrats,
believed the best people ("natural aristocrats") should have most
power.
1. Judges appointed
(not
elected) for life terms.
2. President chosen by
Electoral College (not expected to just register a popular vote).
3. Senate originally
chosen by
state legislatures (not any more -- 17th Amendment).
b. House of Representatives embodied pure,
representative democracy.
1. Two-year terms keep
them in
touch with the electorate.
c. Overall, this is a "republican" form of
government, mixing elements of democracy with elements of elitism
("natural aristocrats").
1. Citizens are equal
as
subjects (e.g., before the law), but not as participants.
September 8
1. Interest-based questions at the Constitutional Convention.
a. North-South issues.
1. Slavery
a.
Slave trade to continue until 1808.
b.
Slaves count 3/5 in determining state population for purposes of
representation.
2. Economic
a.
Tariffs allowed, but export duties forbidden.
b.
Treaties must be ratified by 2/3 of the Senate.
b. Large vs. small states.
a.
Connecticut ("Great") compromise sets structure of Congress.
2 The ratification debate
a. Federalists (pro) vs. Antifederalists
(con).
b. Key states were NY and VA.
c. Both sides wrote their arguments for the
newspapers. Federalist papers explained the Constitution's
rationale.
a. #10 focused on the
dangers
of faction, especially if the faction is a majority.
1.
Claimed that the size and diversity of the country would work against
such
factions.
b. #51 addressed the
same
issues, but in more structural terms.
1.
Argued that separation of powers, checks & balances were strong
protection
vs. majority factions.
3 The ratification debate
a. Federalists (pro) vs. Antifederalists
(con).
b. Key states were NY and VA.
c. Both sides wrote their arguments for the
newspapers. Federalist papers explained the Constitution's
rationale.
a. #10 focused on the
dangers
of faction, especially if the faction is a majority.
1.
Claimed that the size and diversity of the country would work against
such
factions.
b. #51 addressed the
same
issues, but in more structural terms.
1.
Argued that separation of powers, checks & balances were strong
protection
vs. majority factions.
EVOLUTION OF THE CONSTITUTION
1.
Recap -- lessons learned:
a. The Constitution was created by
effective politicians,
not demigods.
b. The document is short,
5400 words -- sticks to principles, not detailed blueprints.
c. Brevity made the Constitution ambiguous --
it would
need interpretation to be used.
d. Difficult issues were omitted -- such as
who can
vote, and whether states could secede.
e. The organizing principle is duplication and
overlap
-- deliberate inefficiency.
2. Change in the Constitution through amendments.
a. First period of amendments: 1789-1804
1. Mainly the Bill of
Rights
(first 10) -- protected individuals vs. govt. power.
b. Second period: 1865-70
1. The Civil War
amendments,
freeing slaves, giving them voting rights, making them equal citizens.
2. 14th Amendment,
with its
"equal protection" clause, would be a source of controversy long
afterward.
c. Third period: 1913-present
1. Dominant theme is
more
democracy: women's suffrage, etc. -- the 17th, 19th, 23rd, 24th,
26th.
2. Other important
ones:
16th (income tax), 27th (congressional pay).
3. Methods other than amendment by which the Constitution has
changed.
a. Judicial interpretation.
1. Beginning with
Marbury v.
Madison, which established the power of judicial review.
b. Legislative elaboration
1. For instance, the
Judiciary
Act of 1989, which first created the court system, as mandated by the
Constitution.
c. Presidential practice.
1. For instance, the
"emergency power" claimed by Lincoln.
d. Custom & usage
1. For instance,
media, parties and
interest groups.
September 10
I.
Federalism
a. Definition: national and state
governments sharing power, each supreme in its own area
b. Federalism in the Constitution
1. Enumerated
powers: national, concurrent, prohibited
2. Other powers reserved
to states
3. National supremacy
4. Other
provisions: full faith and credit, interstate compacts, Supreme Court
as referee
II. Summary -- the evolution of federalism
a. 1800-1820 -- who has the power,
national or
state governments?
1. McCulloch v.
Maryland
(implied powers, national supremacy)
2. Gibbons v. Ogden
(commerce clause)
b. civil war era (the secession
question
settled)
c. 1870-1930s, more or less --
dual
federalism, states' rights
1. e.g., Plessy v.
Ferguson
("separate but equal")
2. still, some
cooperation
-- e.g., land grant colleges
d. 1930s - present -- especially
1960s
& after -- cooperative federalism
1. FDR's New Deal
and
attempted court packing
2. LBJ's Great
Society &
cooperative administration of federal programs
September 15
I.
In current era, most battles have been over the conditions of aid
(e.g., types of grants), and
a.
Mandates,
especially unfunded ones
b.
"regulated federalism"
c.
devolution (a trend since mid-1990s) - conservatives
prefer for philosophical reasons
d. a way
to
relieve the federal budget
e.
deepseated
cultural preference for local institutions
II. Regional political culture (moralistic, individualistic,
traditional,
mixed)
III. Structures of state governments
a. Constitutional structures and differences
across
states -- including initiative, referendum, recall, Dillon's rule
b. Political differences (voting, parties,
interests)
IV. Local governments
a. Formal differences (role of mayor, council,
etc.)
b. Financial and policy issues
c. Importance of "grass roots" government to
democracy
V. State and local governments as spawning grounds for national
political candidates
September
17
1. Rights
a. Where do they come from?
Religions
vs. utilitarian arguments
b. Are any rights absolute?
c. Do rights conflict with one
another?
2. Civil liberties -- protections of individuals and
groups
against government intrustions
a. Speech -- key questions involve what is
"speech?" E.g., flag burning.
b. Assembly -- Nazi marches, controversial
clubs, etc.
c. Press -- questions such asw libel, prior
restraint
d. Religion
1. Free exercise --
raises
issues such as use of drugs in traditional religious rituals
2. No establishment --
the
"wall" -- issues such as school prayer
f. Keep and bear arms -- weapons can be
outlawed, but
where to draw the line?
g. Police practice -- e.g., search & seizure.
h. Rights incorporated through 14th
amendment (e.g., Gideon v.
Wainwright)
i. Rights inferred by the courts -- e.g.,
privacy.
(e.g., Roe v. Wade)
3. The politics of civil liberties -- Constitutional protection
for the
unpopular
4. Current issues -- civil liberties and the war on terrorism
a. protection for the accused
b. privacy and law enforcement
September 22
Civil
liberties (cont.)
a. gun control -- DC v. Heller establishes individual right to keep and
bear arms
b. terrorism -- Posner essay shows how legal
arguments balance contlicting rights, values
Civil
rights
a. Central theme is equality -- seeking state
aid in
preserving or achieving it
b. Initially associated with efforts of black
citizens
to secure equal treatment
1. Legacy of civil war and
reconstruction
-- Plessy case
2. Brown v. Board of
Education the
landmark case on de jure ("by law") segregation
c. But civil rights battles fought in all
political
arenas, not just courts.
1. President Truman integrates
armed
forces by executive order
2. 1957 and 1964 Civil
Rights Acts, ERA, etc.
d. De jure vs. de facto
segregation (Swann)
-- less moral clarity in newer issues
1. busing as remedy proved
controversial
e. Key questions now involve what groups can
claim
civil rights protections
1. Ethnic minorities,
such as
hispanics, Asians
2. Other minorities
such as
handicapped, gays & lesbians
3. Majority groups,
such as
women
f. Other key question is what can (and cannot)
the
govt. do to assure rights
1. Affirmative action
controversy (e.g. Grutter and Gratz) -- diversity
policies restricted, not outlawed
2. The politics of civil rights -- mobilizing majorities to
protect
minorities
September 29
1. Congress
-- the most "popular" branch and
intended by the Constitution to be the most powerful
a. Formal (constitutional) powers
1. tax and spend (fiscal
policy)
a.
responsibility for deficis, surpluses -- and the national debt
2. regulate commerce (a
broad power)
3. foreign affairs (shared
with
president)
a.
declare
war
b.
Senate
ratifies treaties
4. Senate confirms executive
and
judicial appointments
5. elect and impeach
presidents,
vice-presidents, judges
a.
power to
formally elect the president became relevant in the confusion of the
2000
election
6. initiate constitutional
amendments
b. Informal powers -- have evolved over time
1. oversight of the
executive branch
2. conduct hearings to
investigate
need for new laws
3. investigations to gauge
and
influence public opinion
c. Organization of Congress
1. bicameral legislature
a.
Senate =
100 members
b.
House =
435 members, the number set by Congress in 1911
2. House operated more
formally - a
member's influence usually centers on committees, subcommittees
a.
an
example is the role of the Rules Committee in regulating debate
3. Senate more informal,
because
smaller (and terms are longer)
a.
an
example is the institution of the filibuster, taking advantage of
tradition of
unlimited debate
II. Organization of Congress
a. House
1. Speaker is leader of majority party
-- then majority leaer, whips
2. Minority leader, whips lead the
other party
b. Senate
1. Vice President of U.S. formally
presides, but usually only for ceremony or to break or make ties
2. President pro tem basically an
honorary position for most senior Senator in majority party
3. Real leadership is majority &
minority leaders, whips
c. Committees and subcommittees do a large share of
the work in both chambers
1. key role of committee or
subcommittee chair
2. importance of committee staff in
advising on policy, putting together bills
d. from bill to law
1. role of conference committees in
reconciling House and Senate bills
2. overall slowness and complexity of
the process.
October 1
e. other congressional agencies: GAO, Cong.
Budget Office, Cong. Research Service
f. importance of staff
III. Roles of members of Congress
a. Objectives
1. good policy
2. constituence representation
3. move up in hierarchy of Congress
4. party loyalty is variable -- not a
parliamentary system
b. Representation a slippery concept
1. rep. of individuals, groups,
district as a whole
2. descriptive vs. substantive
3. delegate vs. trustee
c. Pork barrel and earmarks
d. "Paradox" - Congress unpopular as a whole, but
95% reelected.
1. Leads to demands for term limits.
IV. Linkages between Congress and other institutions --
"separated institutions sharing power"
a. links to the interest group community
1. campaign contributions and lobbying
2. "iron triangles" and "issue networks"
B. links to the executive
C. links to the president
1. partisanship and presidential
influence
2. implications of divided government
D. links to the courst
1. confirmations
2. courts interpret legislative intent
E. links to national security, homeland security
1. creation of institutions (such as
DHS)
2. extraordinary investigations
October 6
1.
The presidency in the Constitution
a. Clearly in charge of foreign affairs
1. Commander-in-chief
2. Chief diplomat
b. Power in domestic affairs not spelled out in
detail
1. Chief executive, with
appointment
power -- but even removal power not specified
c. As a result, the powers of the presidency needed
to be
filled in over time, generally by strong presidents who added new
dimensions
2. The "great" or "near great" presidents who have
done most to define and enlarge the office
a. Washington -- "restraint," especially in
refusing to serve more than two terms
b. Jefferson -- founder of first party -- president
as Chief
of Party
c. Jackson -- connection to grass roots, president
as
representative of all the people
d. Lincoln -- prerogative doctrine -- "emergency
power" during Civil War
e. T. Roosevelt -- stewardship doctrine -- "going
public"
f. Wilson -- idealism, notion of U.S.
"exceptionalism" -- "going public"
g. F. Roosevelt -- president as social reformer --
president
as Chief Legislator -- use of radio
h. Reagan (and Clinton) -- president as Chief
Communicator
-- use of TV
3. President is also Chief of State -- ceremonial head as well as
political leader
4. Thus people typically equate "greatness" with assertion of
power
a. but presidents are limited in how they can
exercise power
b. in fact, trying to somehow lead has become a
challenge to contemporary presidents
October 8
1. How press, public, etc. view the presidency as an institution
depends
a lot on how recent presidents have been assessed.
2. President and Congress
a. "the power to persuade"
b. divided government, interest groups and other
obstacles
to leadership
c. "thickening" of the political system -- more
institutionalized actors, interests
3. The president and the public -- "going public" as an option
a. speeches and travel
b. consequences of public approval for presidential
success
4. Presidents find they can be more successful in foreign and
national security policy -- less interest group involvement
5. Unilateral powers of the office
a. veto, executive orders, executive agreements,
signing statements
b. "unitary executive" theory, from vesting clause
in Article II
1. used as justification for wiretaps,
torture guidelines
2. also used to argue that Congress
can't direct agencies (e.g. EPA) to implement laws in specific ways
3. highly controversial, not confirmed
by courts, and not likely to be pushed by next administration.
6.
Presidency is not just the president --
especially clear in role of Chief Executive, where institutions have
grown up
to help
a. Bureau of Budget (now called Office of Management
and
Budget) -- 1921
1. Gave president control of
budgetary priorities for first time
b. Executive Office of the President -- 1939
1. Includes White House
Office (WH
staff) and OMB
2. Also such important
agencies as
Nat. Security Council staff, Council of Econ. Advisers, Trade Rep.,
Drug
"Czar"
3. These report to president
only --
power not shared with Congress, as is the case with the rest of the
executive
branch
7. Decision-making processes in White House
a. Intended as multiple advocacy
b. Occasionally -- especially in crisis -- works
differently
October 13
1.
Cabinet -- the heads of major
departments -- an advisory body from the outset of the presidency
1. influence has declined as
number
has grown -- and WH, EOP staff closer to president
2. "inner" Cabinet
departments still very powerful -- State, Justice, Defense, Treasury
3. "outer" Cabinet
departments, typically serving a particular clientele, have less
influence with
president
a. New challenge -- Homeland Security
b. Vice President, First Lady sometimes used in key
policy
roles -- varies with presidency
1. VP in particular has been more
important in recent presidencies
c. All this together can be called the
"institutional" presidency
2.. Bureaucracy
(literally --
"rule by the bureaus")
a. First fully described by Max Weber -- several key
characteristics
1. hierarchy (formal
authority
structure)
2. specialization (division
of
labor)
3. rules
4. merit-base
(professionalism)
5. impersonality (a type of
fairness)
6. continuity (individuals
come and
go -- roles go on)
b. Amounts to efforts of large organizations to be
as
efficient as possible
October 15
1. Bureaucracy in U.S. not much mentioned in Constitution
a. Initially very small - 4 depts (State, Treasury,
War,
Navy) constituted the Cabinet
b. Responsible to president, but also to Congress
(which
passes laws, makes appropriations, oversees)
c. Initial dept. heads were of the same social class
as
Founding Fathers ("natural aristocrats")
2. By 1828 larger, but still small (about 10,000, counting mail
carriers), still headed by same kind of people
a. Andrew Jackson sought democratic reform through
the
"spoils system" (patronage)
b. Put own supporters in top positions, claimed any
intelligent person could do any govt. job
c. Over time, though, problems of inefficiency
(incompetence) and corruption were frequently noticed
3. Key event in 1881 -- assassination of President Garfield by Chas.
Guiteau, a
"disappointed office-seeker"
a. Led to Pendleton Act in 1883, establishing a
civil
service system for the first time in U.S. national govt.
1. Attempt to
professionalize, along
the lines of Weber's model
2. Stressed "neutral
competence," merit system, protection of careerists through tenure
b. Initially only 10%, but grew as presidents
"blanketed in" their appointees as they left office
1. Eventually 80% or more.
2. Thus a two-tiered system,
with
"political executives" (pres. appointees) in top jobs, civil
service in rest
a.
Pol.
execs. expected to be responsive to president's agenda -- civil service
provides non-partisan competence
October 20
1.
Purpose of courts -- resolve disputes over
a. the meaning or application of laws (most cases)
b. the Constitution (the most influential cases)
2. Organization
a. District courts are courts of original
jurisdiction
b. Losers have right of automatic appeal to Circuit
Courts of Appeal
c. Highest level is Supreme Court -- does not have
to hear appeals
1. Only about 1% of all cases reach
this level
3. Personnel
a. Judges normally have been partisan politicians
b. Over 90% of judicial appointments come from party
of president
c. Senatorial courtesy guides appointments to
District Courts
d. Senate confirmation has become increasingly
partisan, contentious
1. Refusal of Senate to confirm Robert
Bork was a key event
2. Presidents now seek mostly nominees
who won't be filibustered
4. The standard model of how judges decide: they
weigh
a. facts of the case
b. law or Constitution
c. precedent (the principle of stare decisis)
1. this principle seeks to
assure
fairness, predictability of decisions
2. but courts can overrule
own
precedents -- e.g. Brown v. Board of Education, Gideon v. Wainwright
2. The "standard model" is incomplete, sometimes even referred
to as the "myth of the robe" because it omits
a. judges' personal and judicial philosophy
1. liberal or conservative
policy
preferences
2. strict vs. broad
construction of
the Constitution
3. belief in the need for
activist
judiciary vs. belief in need for restraint
b. the political and social environment at a
particular time
c. personalities and group interactions on the
Supreme Court
d. other political influences
October 22
1. The
Supreme Court's routines for handling
cases
a. issues writ of certiorari for those (relatively
few)
cases it will hear
1. cases must have broad
significance, be "ripe" for decision
b. oral argument, followed by conference and vote
c. written opinions
1. majority (plus concurring
decisions)
2. dissents
a.
concurrences and dissents written to explain positions in hope of
influencing
future decisions on similar issues
2. Limitations on the power of the courts
a. decisions are not self-executing
b. courts are passive institutions, can only decide
cases
brought to them
c. Congress retains right of impeachment
d. president (and Senate) control appointments
3. How courts interact with other institutions "sharing powers" -
the Title IX case.
a. Moral -- there is no "locus of sovereignty"
b. Moral -- the game is never over
October 29
1. Public
opinion
a. fundamental to democracy
1. legitimacy depends
on
responsiveness to will of people
2. therefore, must be
able to
find out what that is
3. elections are one
way, but
hard to interpret because not directly about issues
2.
Elections the traditional way public opinion is expressed
1. a way of familiarizing
citizens with their leaders & aspiring leaders
2. ideally, a way of
testing to determine the "best" candidate, but
a.
highly image-driven
b. puts
a premium on ambition because the contests are so grueling
c. requires
candidates to make so many promises they may seem to sell their souls
to interest groups & party factions.
d. we lack
good theory connecting candidate attributes to effective performance in
office, even if we could know more.
3. Turnout is low compared to other countries --around 50%
of those potentially eligible for presidential elections
1. turnout even
lower for state & local elections where one's vote is more apt to
matter
2. high turnout
predited this year -- wait and see.
4. How to explain people's vote choices
1. party identifcation -- the best single predictor
of an individual's vote
2. candidate
qualities as perceived by the voter
3. issues
a. when the
economy is in trouble, it tends to dominate all other issues
b. foreign
policy is important mainly in wartime
5. Candidates present selves through narratives of their
experiences, designed to show virtues
1. e.g., McCain the
courageous war hero; Obama the boy abandoned by father who achieved by
merit
6. Presidential elections are not just about overall votes --
witness 2000 -- but about electoral votes.
November 3
1. Election night -- we know from polling that the
election will turn on outcomes from a few "battleground" states,
including VA
a. Most states are safe for either
McCain or Obama already
b. How do we know this? Polling.
2. Polling -- how can we trust the poll numbers we
have been seeing during the campaign?
a. The key is random sampling,
which allows a small sample to represent a much larger population
1. within certain
bounds (sampling error)
2. with a particular
degree of certainty (confidence level)
3. Factors that may confound polling
a. cell phones have made phone book
sampling questionable
b. when African Americans run, we think
of the Bradley effect (may not have happened) and Wilder effect
(probably did)
c. pollsters have to estimate who will
actually show up to vote -- can be as much art as science
4. Who does show up to vote?
a. older voters -- though the "youth
vote" may finally materialize this year
b. wealthier, better educated voters --
socio-economic class matters
c. voters with strong partisan
attachments
1. the "myth of the wise
independent" is misleading
5. What other factors affect turnout?
a. election laws
1. early voting, election
day registration, motor voter are efforts to increase turnout
2. but efforts to increase
turnout must be balanced against the possibility of voter fraud
November 5
1. Components of public opinion
a. Values -- basic beliefs about justice, fairness,
equality, etc.
1. Carried over time through the
political culture
2. Instilled through political
socialization
a. from family, school,
peers in later life
b. for most people, basic
values established by mid-teens
3. Fundamental values and others like
party identification basically established before an individual knows
much about politics
b. Attitudes -- positions on issues
1. Typically become more conservative
as individuals age
2. This provides a traditional "drag"
that leads to some stability in public attitudes over time -- a
challenge to "change" advocates
c. Beliefs -- our understandings of how the world
works
1. For instance, the conviction that
people are either basically selfish or inclined toward generosity
2. Or the belief that all politicians
are crooks vs. the belief that most are basically honest and sincere
2. Some generalizations about public opinion
a. People's attitudes can be inconsistent across
issues -- for instance, supporting spending programs but opposition
taxes
b. Americans tend to be more pragmatic than
ideological -- distrust comprehensive ideologies like socialism or
libertarianism
c. Many people are relatively uninformed when it
comes to facts about government and politics
1. Usually, for instance, about 1/4 of
the public can't identify the vice president.
d. But many argue that despite factual deficit,
citizens understand their own values and interests and can vote
appropriately
1. However, this is controversial --
not all public opinion analysts would agree
3. The knowledge we have is mediated -- most people have little direct
experience of government and politics, so we rely on media.
November 10
1. Mass Media of Communication functions
a. framing the news -- giving it meaning
b. shaping the agenda -- calling attention to issues
that need to be addressed
c. watchdog -- holding public officials and other
prominent people accountable to high standards of conduct
d. interelite communication -- floating "trial
balloons" so officials can judge reactions prior to making commitments
2. Allegations of bias troubling since informed public opinion depends
on accurate information
a. partisan bias
1. liberal bias -- most reporters are
liberals
2. conservative bias -- most media
ownership is conservative
3. much research has produced evidence
on both sides -- your OR reading is a good example of a study that
finds liberal bias
b. anti-incumbent bias
1. reporters identify as outsiders, can
make their names bringing down powerful people
c. pro-establishment bias
1. reporters these days have elite
educations, easily take on the perspective of those they cover
d. structural bias -- the greatest consensus is
around the idea that there is this kind of bias
1. grounded in the fact that news media
are businesses, must attract viewers or readers to sell the product
2. thus they emphasize dramatic or
unusual events that entertain us rather than more important, but dull,
issues
3. in political coverage, for instance,
an emphasis on campaigns as horse races, gaffes, corruption, etc.
3. Communications technology has given us the 24-hour news cycle,
heightening the sensitivity of officeholders to the need to respond.
4. Relations between officeholders and reporters have grown more
distant, oppositional.
5. Segmenation of outlets allows us to get only news presented
from a perspective with which we already agree
November 12
1. Brief lectures by representatives of the parties: Ms
Phant, Mr. Key, and Bob Barr
2. Two key elements of parties: social base and
policies/programs
3. Both of the above have changed many times in the face of new
societal challenges -- we call these changes realignments
a. First party system developed in 1800 around
Jefferson's challenge to the Federalists
1. Mosty north vs. south,
industry vs. agriculture1. Interest
groups defined
b. Second party system in about 1828, when
Jackson
takes over the Democrats and the Whigs become the opposition
1. Jackson represents south and
west, opposition to "big govt." in the form of the Bank; Whigs more
positive toward govt.
c. Third party system develops around time of Civil
War -- splits over slavery end Whigs, split Democrats; Republicans
become the opposition
1. Republicans basically a northern,
anti-slavery party; after the war, the Democrats based more in south
d. Depression of 1890s causes Democrats and
Republicans to realign around economic issues
1. Democrats dominate south and
midwest, hostile to big businesses and banks; Republicans' base more in
north and east
e. Depression of 1930s sparks another realignment
1. Democrats' "New Deal coalition"
represents those most hurt -- workers, small business, minorities --
supports strong govt. intervention, GOP opposes
4. No full realignment since then -- perhaps because politics
& govt. are "thickening" and less responsive than before
5. Regional realignment as south, always the most conservative
area, moves toward Republicans
6. Why only two parties -- why not more responsiveness through
multi-parties
a. Single-member-district, winner-take-all voting
rules work against third parties because you have to finish first to
get anything
b. Tradition -- people assume one of the two parties
will win, so see supporting others as "throwing one's vote away."
November 17
1..
"An
organization pursuing the needs and
preferences of its members through the political process"
1. may represent
people of
similar status -- typcially "private" interest groups
2. may represent
people of
similar opinions -- typically "public" interest groups
3. groups claim to
speak for
entire categories, though seldom actually do
a. differ from parties in that their focus is
narrower
1. traditionally more
involved
in influencing elected officials than in electing them
2. but IGs now
participate
heavily in campaigns -- with money and other resources
b. pluralism -- basic argument is that IGs as
a whole
represent public opinion accurately
1. everybody either is
in
groups or has them speaking for their interests
2. only holds if
groups are of
relatively equal power
c. Olson's critique of pluralism
1. some interests will
be
stronger than others because some kinds of groups are easier to form
2. groups will only
form under
one of two conditions
a. you
get something ("selective benefit") for joining that's worth the
cost, and which you wouldn't otherwise get
b. or,
the group is small enough to exert social pressure
3. this logic suggests
that
producer groups (business, labor, agriculture, professions) will be
easy to
form because
members receive selective benefits over and above any political benefit
4. groups producing
public (orcollective)
benefits (all share, even if they didn't help to produce) -- "public
interest" groups --
will
be hard to form
2. Analysis of Olson's critique of pluralism, which suggests that the
pluralists' assertion that groups
will form whenever needed is at least
partially
incorrect
a. emphasis on incentive for individuals to be
"free riders"
b. however, Olson is partially wrong, too --
"public interest" do form, and some persist
1. entrepreneurs
(e.g., Ralph
Nader, Pat Robertson) are the key
2. but such groups
have been
less stable than producer organizations
3..
Pluralists' second criterion -- that groups
be effective in roughly proportion to their numbers -- not met
a. Resources for group effectiveness are
unequally
distributed across society
1. social status
2. organizations
3. leadership
4. social base (size,
money,
cohesion)
5. doctrines
(compatibility,
number)
b. This suggests that, in E.E.
Schattschneider's
words, "the choir in pluralist heaven sings with an upper-class
accent"
December 1
1. Public policy -- "a purposive course of
action
followed or expected to be followed by public actors"
a. law
b. court decisions
c. executive orders
2. Two components of a "policy"
a. goals, or ends
b. technology, or means
c. both can be controversial
3. Stages of the policy process
a. problem recognition
1. interest groups, public
opinion,
media contribute
b. agenda setting
1. Congress, the
presidential
administration, to some extent the courts
2. "issue-attention cycle"
of public provides only a "window" of opportunity
c. policy formulation
1. bureaucracy, Congress
&
staff, think tanks & interest groups contribute
d. policy enactment
1. Congress, president,
courts
e. policy implementation
1. federal and state
bureaucracies
f. policy impact
1. the "real" consequences
of public policy
g. policy evaluation
1. our efforts to learn the
consequences of policy, especially in terms of its presumed goals
2.
bureaucracy mainly, also Govt.
Accountability Office (GAO) of Congress, think tanks, academics,
elected
officials, media, others.
December 3
1. Social welfare policy
a. into the 20th century, mostly lacking -- reliance
on private charity, families, state governments
b. first major strides in 1930s with FDR's New Deal
2. Reasons why policy deemed necessary
a. economic cycles, (e.g. depression) seemingly
inevitable
b. capitalism creates inequality
c. individual misfortune (illness, disability, etc.)
3. New Deal introduced many "safety net" programs
a. short-term fixes like the Works Progress
Administration or Civilian Conservation Corp put people to work in
public jobs
b. long-term programs like Social Security were
enacted
4. Further extension of welfare policies in 1960s, especially under
Johnson's "Great Society" programs
a. Medicare (for elderly) and Medicaid
(state-administered program aimed at poor)
b. Aid to Families with Dependent Children (what's
often called "welfare") expanded
1. unintended consequences included
encouraging family breakups, dependency.
5. Clinton's vow to "end welfare as we know it" resulted in TANF,
a time-limited substitute for AFDC
a. "welfare" no longer an open-ended entitlement
program
b. back to original aim of helping people get back
on their feet
6. Johnson also got federal govt. more involved in education, with such
things as Operation Head Start and money for school construction, lunch
programs, etc.
7. The upshot of these developments is that the U.S., like most
developed countries, became what is usually called a "welfare state,"
guaranteeing a safety net for all
a. But less comprehensive than many countries
elsewhere, and lacking things like comprehensive health care policy.,
b. Bush administration has pioneered in two areas:
1. Education, with No Child Left Behind
Act
2. Support for welfare activities of
faith-based organizations\
December 8
1. Education policy (cont.)
a. No Child Left Behind increased federal
involvement in education
b. Disliked by some states because it creates an
unfunded mandate.
2. Economic policy -- 19th century
a. Laissez-faire -- "hands off" -- little federal
involvement except promotional (e.g., giving land for railroads)
b. Belief that the "invisible hand" of the market
provides for the greatest good
3. Early 20th century
a. Market inefficiencies became a problem for
government to solve
1. Tendency, if unregulated,
toward monopoly
2. Lack of consumer information
to make rational choices in some instances (e.g. drugs)
3. Regulation was the response,
to preserve markets (e.g. antitrust laws) and protect individuals
(e.g., Pure Food and Drug Act)
4. Great Depression of 1930s brought on additional efforts to use
economic policy to counter the economic cycle.
5. Three basic kinds of economic policies
1. Regulation
2. Promotion
a. Help for business, such as
infrastructure (e.g. roads, airports), tax incentives, sometimes
bailouts
b. Help for agriculture, such as price
supports, subsidized crop insurance
c. Help for labor, such as laws
requiring employers to allow unions to organize.
3. Stabilization
a. Fiscal policy -- using taxing
and spending to counter inflation or recession ("Keyensian economics")
-- Congress & President
b. Monetary policy -- using the
money supply and price of money to heat up or cool down the economy --
Federal Reserve
1. Fed given
enormous power, basically not accountable to either Congress or
president
December 10
1. "The World is Flat" -- technology has reduced the importance
of geographical and political barriers
a. Global economic system is much more tightly
integrated now
b. Global politics and economics are intertwined
2. Global system usually thought of as sovereign states in
something like a "state of nature"
3. U.S. policy toward global involvement has evolved
a. Washington Farewell address -- stay out of
European affairs lest we be pulled into their wars
b. Monroe Doctrine -- Europe should stay out
of Western Hemisphere -- we are the protectors
c. Spanish-American War -- we engage a
European power, become a colonial power (Philippines)
4. Tried to stay neutral in WWI, but pulled in on side of Britain
& France
a. After that, a period in which we tried
again to stay uninvolved in conflicts in Europe, Asia (and out of
League of Nations)
b. Munich Conference of 1938 -- Britain & France
try to "appease" Hitler but that doesn't stop him
a. Lesson learned: "never
appeas an aggressor
c. Pearl Harbor
a. Lesson learned -- isolationism is
not an effective strateg
b. Lesson learned -- need multilateral
institutions -- so promoted United Nations
5. Cold War era
a. Basic U.S. doctrine was containment -- stop
Soviet Union from expanding territory
b. Wars in Korea and Vietnam were grounded in this
approach
1. Lesson learned from Vietnam --
can't be the "policeman of the world" (Nixon doctrine)
c. Ultimately containment worked and the Soviet
economy and government collapsed
6. Threats in the current era
a. Nuclear proliferation (including unstable
countries like North Korea)
b. Non-nuclear weapons of mass destruction
(biological, chemical weapons)
c. Terrorism (e.g. Al Qaida and other non-state
actors)
d. Arguably the danger now is as great or greater
than ever